Understanding crowd behaviour

Understanding crowd behaviour There are many vague definitions of the term a crowd one of which is defined as by the Oxford Dictionary() as a large number of people gathered together, usually without orderly arrangement and Le Bon (2006:15) defines a crowd as a gathering of individuals of whatever nationality, profession or sex and whatever be chances that have brought them together. The Oxford Dictionary() also defines behaviour as a manner of behaving or the response of an organism to a stimulus in regards to this literature the stimulus could be the emotions of others, or a shared experience within the crowd, or factors contributing to emotions within individuals in a crowd. Getz (2007:293) states that understanding crowd emotions and behaviour is essential for most events But Crowd management, however, is not simply achieved by attempting to control the audience, but by trying to understand their behaviour and the various factors which can affect this. (HSE, 2009:46) It is also noted in the HSE (2009) that the behaviour of crowds at events is determined by their own personal goals and motivations. This literature review will look at the frameworks behind three theories of crowd behaviour, as it is imperative to understand the psychological behaviour of crowds (Kendall 2008:545). The theories concerned are:- -Classic theories Contagion Theory Convergence Theory -Emergent- Norm Theory It will seek to identify key factors that can change behaviour within crowds and the impacts these can have on outdoor events. The literature underpinning research into crowd behaviour stems from disciplines such as psychology and sociology, with an apparent lack of recent research into crowd behaviours at large outdoor events. Crowd Behaviour Theories It is noted that the two classical theories that are reviewed, are the foundations of what has been formed today, they have evolved over time, but it is provided as an overview of crowd behaviour theories. Contagion Theory There are two key authors of the Group Mind theory, Le bon Freud It is important to recognise that the widely cited works of Gustave Le Bon, from his 1895 book, The Crowd was based on his observations of crowds during the French revolution, and are a long way from the crowds that are experienced today. Le Bon (2006) stated that crowds were protected by the anonymity of crowds and that individual responsibility was discarded, consequently forgetting their normal values and ability to think and to reason. He also assessed that ideas and emotions within the crowd became contagious and spread rapidly. However Reicher (2003:186) suggests that contagion theory is an affect of suggestibility, and that an individual sacrifices personal interest in favour of the collective interest of the crowd It is then understood that Individuals within crowds are more likely to involve themselves in antisocial behaviour as the anonymity provided makes them feel invulnerable, it is this collective behaviour that is understood to be irrational and that individuals will undertake actions within a crowd environment that they would normally resist. Freud believed that the crowd Unlocks the unconscious and that in normal daily situations moral standards are maintained because they are installed in the human psyche as the super ego. However in a crowd situation the leader of the group surpasses the super ego and now controls the unconscious, leading to uncivilised impulses (Hewstone Manstead, 1996:152) Criticisms My understanding of this theory is that it does not identify as to why some crowds become violent and other remain passive. 2. Convergence Theory Convergence theorists such as, Reicher (1984), and McPhail (1991), argue that individuals within a crowd do not loose personal identity, as stated in the contagion theory, but they communicate personal beliefs and values so that the crowds behaviour is that of similar feeling. It is understood that convergence theory is more rational as it focuses on the shared beliefs and emotions within a crowd. It is possible that individual can exploit the protection of being in a crowd to participate in behaviours that would normally be repressed. Criticisms However it does not give way to why individuals in this crowd, who share similar beliefs, behave differently. Emergent-Norm Theory Key Authors identified:- Turner and Killian Turner and Killian (1993) as cited in Kendall (2008:547) concede that crowds are understood to develop their own definition of a situation and therefore establish their own norms -social rules that specify appropriate and inappropriate behaviour in given situations (Sharpe, 2007:508 )that reflect the occasion and provide standards that allow decisions to be made about how people will interact with each other. (Sharpe,2007) Adang et al (2004) identifies that in every crowd you can spot individuals doing such things as initiating chats, shouting directions and in extreme cases initiating violence. FIND THEORY IN TURNER AND KILLIAN Emergent-Norm Theory argues that the appearance of unanimity among the participants in incidents of collective behaviour accompanies the emergence of dominant norms and according to this theory, once a dominant norm emerges group members disagreeing with it keep quiet out of fear of group censure (Aguire et al, 1998) rephrase Analysis of theories Factors of Crowd Behaviour Berlonghi (1995) argues that by simply saying a crowd is a large number of people gathered closely together is a mistake and that it essential to distinguish one individual from another. By being unable to make distinctions about the crowd it leaves crowd control and crowd management ineffective. He also recognises those events that are a success, that never become publicised are they the consequence of effective planning, or simply the result of good luck. Crowd Catalysts It would appear that there are a multitude of factors that can influence behaviours between individuals in a crowd. Berlonghi (1995) has identified factors that may contribute to, or trigger a crowd from being one that is managed to one that needs to be controlled. Operational Circumstances Lack of parking, sold out event, and no show of performers are all examples of factors that can modify a crowds behaviour, an example of how crowd behaviour changed can be identified by The Rage Factor a Rage Against The Machine gig, which took place in Finsbury Park in 2010. Tickets were available by Ballot to celebrate the campaign that got the band to number one the previous Christmas. 180,000 people had applied for tickets with only 40,000 being available. It is reported that several hundred fans scaled the fence. (Gittins, 2010) Reading Festival has been forced to apply for extension to the number of early bird tickets allowing 20,000 people to arrive before the stated start of the event; this was due to an ever-increasing amount of festival goers arriving at the festival entrance prior to the event over the last few years. (Reading Borough Council, 2010) Event Activities Fireworks, video replays, and lasers may provoke actions within the crowd. Performers Action Sexual or violent gestures towards the crowds, Latitude festival 2010 witnessed an attack on the crowd, with Crystal Castles front women appearing to lash out after allegedly being groped by a male fan as she was crowd surfing. The singer repeatedly threw punches into the crowd and subsequently she stormed off stage before the allotted time, with widespread booing from the back of the fields (NME, 2010) The HSE (1999) states that event organisers should be aware of the history of the performers and also the audience which they attract. Spectator factors Anti social behaviour can impact a crowd not just the individual, and is having an impact in how events are being delivered (Connell, 2009). Kemp et al (2007) as cited in Connell (2009) have identified that alcohol and drugs are a major factor in determining crowd behaviour. The Guardian (2010) reported that at T in the Park festival in Kinross-shire, Scotland, there were 2 rapes and an attempted murder. Some festival goers believe a major part of the problem is a changing demographic among those attending, with drinking and drug taking surpassing the music. Security or Police Use of excessive policing, arguments with attendees and abuse of authority can spark aggression within the crowd. It has become increasingly accepted that the outcome of crowd events cannot be explained solely on what crowd members do, but must also address police actions (Adang, 2004). It is usual to use police to control a crowd but this often then leads to confrontation with the police (Argyle, 1992). Man Made Disasters Structural failure can be problematic not just for those directly injured, but by crowd surges fleeing the event. Crowd surges are often reported at both small and large events, and can be catastrophic. Conclusion The primary focus of this review is to understand crowd behaviours and factors which can impact the outcome of a crowds behaviour. Once the variable factor has caused an impact, it is then the individuals within the crowd that will react to the stimulus, and form themselves into the parameters of crowd behaviour that have been outlined by theorists. It is evident that there are factors within all three theories that can be imparted into observations within crowds at music festivals it is possible to envisage actions at outdoor music events that can be explained by these theories, however much of the recent literature simply reiterated these theorists with an apparent lack of observation towards currents trends and attitudes in society. The effects of crowd behaviour within outdoor music events can be catastrophic should event managers not take into consideration the factors that can affect the behaviour of both small and large crowds. If event managers fail to understand individuals within a crowd, and the potential that they have to physically change the dynamics of the crowd around them, they face disastrous consequences. Recommendations In 2010 there were over 450 music festivals alone in the UK (Winterman, 2010) and there has been little research into Anti Social Behaviour at events including the motives of gatecrashers at events attendees attempting to enter events without a ticket and the consequences that such actions can have on crowd safety at events. None of the theories above draw attention to why some crowds are organised and others spontaneous, by looking at the motivations of individuals at music festivals we may begin to further understand anti social behaviour at these events.

A Refutation of the Descent of Man from Apes Essay

Perhaps even before the time of Darwin, man had already started asking himself where he had come from, and somehow the Theory of Divine Creation – that man was rather created as himself and has not descended from any other animal – proved to be rather insufficient as a means to explain his roots. Scientific studies later on proved that there are several homologies shared by man and apes and the question remains as to whether man has indeed descended from this group of primates called apes. However, despite the obvious similarities between the two species, the results of this investigation say otherwise. The Proofs against the Supposed Descent of Man from the Apes The Common Ancestor. It is claimed that â€Å"[humans] didn’t evolve from apes†¦[but that] humans share a common ancestor with modern African apes, like gorillas and chimpanzees† (â€Å"Where We Came From,† 2001). The reason therefore for the similarities and the homologous morphological and anatomical characteristics between humans and apes may not be exactly due to the fact that the first descended from the second but that they could just be of the same ancestor. In a similar way, when you see similarities between two people of different ages, you cannot immediately conclude that the older one has begotten the other but that they could be both siblings. In logic, one can say that just because A looks similar to B, it does not necessarily mean that A has descended or originated from B, although we cannot deny that indeed there is some connection. In short, the claim that humans descended from apes may just have been one speculation or assumption based on morphological evidence, which may prove to be weak. This common ancestor is believed to have â€Å"existed 5 to 8 million years ago [and] shortly thereafter, the species diverged into two separate lineages† (â€Å"Where We Came From,† 2001). There have been claims that â€Å"the [ape or] gorilla lineage branched off 1. 6 to 2. 2 million years earlier than did the human-chimpanzee divergence† (Chen & Li, 2001), making humans even closer to chimpanzees than apes. The term evolutionists have given to this so-called common ancestor of humans and apes is known as â€Å"‘Australopithecus,’ which means ‘South African ape’† (Hasnain, 2009). The theory of the common ancestor has been backed by several studies which stated that either â€Å"mitochondrial DNA† (Ferris, Wilson & Brown, 1983) or the â€Å"extremely close immunological resemblance between the serum albumins of apes and man. † (Sarich & Wilson, 1967) The problem, however, is that it could be that this theory is not that plausible after it was found that â€Å"the beings called Australopithecus in this imaginary scenario fabricated by evolutionists really are apes that became extinct† (Hasnain, 2009). If the Australopithecus had actually not existed, then it could be that man has really descended from apes owing to the homology in their physical structures. Convergent Evolution. The homology in the morphology of humans and apes is, however, not a strong guarantee that the first have descended from the second. It is said that â€Å"the resemblance in the skeleton structure of apes and humans has [always served as] strong evidence for common ancestry† (â€Å"Evolution of Man,† 2010). It is however a poor assumption that similarity means relatedness, which means that â€Å"two species can have homologous anatomy even though they are not related in any way† (â€Å"Evolution of Man,† 2010). This is known as â€Å"convergent evolution. † Convergent evolution teaches one that two species which are distinctly unrelated from each other could have just have developed separately and at times coincidentally produced similarities in morphology. In a similar way, based on pure simple logic, it does not necessarily mean that two people are related just simply because they look similar, even very similar. Menton (2002) states that these similarities may have just been due to â€Å"an incredible run of countless lucky mutational coincidences. † This simply means that it could have been that it is a mere coincidence that humans and apes look alike. Deductive Logic. Robinson (2005) argues that â€Å"If humans evolved from apes, then one would expect that there would be no apes left on earth; all would have evolved into humans. † This statement simply means that since evolution propels a species to change, and if it is true that apes have evolved into humans, then there simply seems no logical explanation as to why several apes nowadays have not evolved into humans. Nevertheless, this claim could be refuted by the theory that certain species of animals may not have evolved because of their ecological niche. This means that certain apes in the jungle may not have evolved into humans due to the fact that the former are arboreal. Conclusion Man has not descended from apes. This is proven by scientifically-based claims that have established the existence of a common ancestor. Another proof is that the evolution of both humans and apes was merely convergent. Lastly, deductive logic disproves it. At this point in time, scientific researches on the evolution of man and apes have not been able to completely shed light on the possibility or impossibility of man’s descent from their primate brothers. Further research is therefore highly recommended. References Chen, F. C. & Li, W. H. (Nov 1985). â€Å"Subliminal messages: Between the devil and the media. † The American Journal of Human Genetics, 6, 444-456. Retrieved May 19, 2010, from the Cell database: http://www. cell. com/AJHG/retrieve/pii/S0002929707640968 â€Å"Evolution of Man – What is it?. † Science. (2010). Retrieved May 18, 2010 from the AllAboutScience. org website: http://www. allaboutscience. org/evolution-of-man. htm Ferris, S. D. , Wilson, A. C. , & Brown, W. M. (Apr 1981). â€Å"Evolutionary Tree for Apes and Humans based on Cleavage Maps of Mitochondrial DNA. † Evolution, 78, 2432-2436. Retrieved May 19, 2010, from the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America database: http://www. pnas. org/content/78/4/2432. full. pdf+html? sid=768efdca-ce15-463a-959d-dd9fbbf7e9d1 Hasnain. â€Å"Did Men and Apes Come from a Common Ancestor?. † Food for Thought: Thought Provoking Articles. (26 Jan 2009). Retrieved May 18, 2010 from the Hasnain’s Life website: http://hasnain. wordpress. com/2009/01/26/did-men-and-apes-come-from-a-common-ancestor/ Menton, D. N. , Ph. D. â€Å"If We Resemble Apes, Does That Mean We Evolved from Apes?. † Origin of Man. (2002). Retrieved May 18, 2010 from the Missouri Association for Creation website: http://www. gennet. org/facts/metro05. html

Research Question And Hypothesis Of Online Peer Mentoring

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Essay on Myth of the Fortunate Fall in John Milton’s...

Myth of the Fortunate Fall in Paradise Lost From this descent / Celestial Virtues rising, will appear / More glorious . . . than from no fall. (ii. 14-16)1These are Satans words to the fallen angels in Paradise Lost. Satan claims that their fall from Heaven will seem like a fortunate fall, in that their new rise to power will actually be more glorious than if they had stayed in Heaven all the while. Can we, as fallen humans, possibly make Satans words our own, even if it is not our own work but Gods that causes our rising; or, if we do claim a fortunate fall, have we been beguiled by Satan to rejoice in our fallen state? While it is common among beguiled critics to claim that Paradise Lost presents the Fall as†¦show more content†¦Worse, as time passes, the scale shall dip farther downward before it can ascend. Sin will reign among men because of the Fall (xii. 285-86). No man or woman shall ever be as good or as fair as Adam and Eve (though this is not necessarily a result of the Fall; iv. 323-24). Michael tells Adam , Since thy original lapse, true liberty/Is lost. Liberty (with political overtones here) is lost because liberty is tied to right reason and depends on reason to moderate the passions. But now that sin is in the world, the passions often eclipse reason. The passions forever after will to servitude reduce/Man till then free (xii. 83-90). Worst of all, the Fall is most fortunate, throughout the entire history of the world, until the final triumph, not for mankind but for Sin and Death, and most of the time for the demons as well (x. 270 ff.). Thou hast achieved our liberty (x. 368), Satans progeny say as they thank him for orchestrating the Fall. What good can there be amongst so much evil? In fact, God makes a point of sending Raphael to Adam and Eve for the express purpose of encouraging obedience and warning against the Fall. Raphael is armed with compelling evidence, too; he explains the results of disobedience for Satan and the fallen angels. Thus mankind should fear to transgress (vi. 906-12; vii. 44-45). What trips up the critics is not that the Fall is evil, however, but that out of such an evil God can bring forth good (i. 163, vii.Show MoreRelatedFall from Grace: Satan as a Spiritually Corrupt Hero in Miltons Paradise Lost2859 Words   |  12 PagesFall From Grace: Satan as a Spiritually Corrupt Hero in Miltons Paradise Lost Can Satan -- a being, so evil that even as an Ethereal being of Heaven, who was cast out of Gods grace - be a hero? John Miltons Satan in Paradise Lost is very much a romanticized character within the epic poem, and there has been much debate since the poems publishing in 1667 over Miltons sentiments and whether Satan is the protagonist or a hero. As an angel in God the Fathers Heaven, Satan rose up with a group